Table 1 Characteristics of studies included in network Meta-Analysis

Alekseeva, 2012 [84]

Total n = 27

Sham (n = 13, 19.8 ± 0.6)

UA (n = 14, 19.5 ± 0.4)

MRT:

39 ± 7.5

48 ± 7.5

Andrade, 2024 [78]

Total n = 31

Sham (n = 14, 73.0 ± 5.5)

Gamma (n = 17, 71.0 ± 7.6)

BDST:

4.93 ± 5.16

5.82 ± 3.92

Becerra, 2012 [9]

Total n = 14

Sham (n = 7, 67 ± 4.9)

Theta (n = 7, 65.8 ± 2.4)

WAIS-III:

96 ± 11

107 ± 6

NEUROPSI-memory:

107 ± 11

110 ± 12

Berner, 2006 [14]

Total n = 11, 20.8 ± 2.8 (crossover)

Sham (n = 11)

SMR (n = 11)

WPT:

40.97 ± 22.31

41.82 ± 19.73

Brandmeyer, 2020 [41]

Total n = 24

Sham (n = 12, 25 ± 3)

Theta (n = 12, 25 ± 3)

N-back task:

1.07 ± 0.03

1.07 ± 0.03

Campos da Paz, 2018 [10]

Total n = 17, 69.05 ± 2.1

SC (n = 4)

Sham (n = 6)

SMR (n = 7)

DMTST:

8.5 ± 2.51

16.5 ± 5.35

20 ± 2.93

Chen, 2023 [74]

Total n = 16, 24.28 ± 1.31

SC (n = 8)

Alpha (n = 8)

3-back task:

70.75 ± 4.62

75.69 ± 3.94

Chikhi, 2023 [37]

Total n = 85

PC (n = 39, 23.28 ± 5.96)

UA (n = 46, 22.33 ± 5.62)

3-back task:

80.27 ± 9.66

80.53 ± 9.69

Chikhi, 2024 [26]

Total n = 101

AC (n = 34, 21.41 ± 8.28)

Theta (n = 28, 19.40 ± 1.81)

UA (n = 39, 23.28 ± 5.96)

3-back task:

82 ± 8

80 ± 9

81 ± 7

Diotaiuti, 2024 [36]

Total n = 40, aged 19–26 years

PC (n = 20)

Alpha (n = 20)_

CBT:

5.7 ± 0.83

5.65 ± 1.70

Domingos, 2020 [79]

Total n = 30

SC (n = 15, 22.53 ± 3.89)

Alpha (n = 15, 27.93 ± 6.11)

FDST:

7.93 ± 0.96

8.13 ± 0.83

Domingos, 2021a [75]

Total n = 30

SC (n = 15, 21.20 ± 2.62)

Alpha (n = 15, 22.53 ± 3.89)

N-back task:

96.00 ± 6.32

98.67 ± 8.84

Domingos, 2021b [77]

Total n = 30, aged 18–34 years

SC (n = 15)

Alpha (n = 15)

N-back task:

96.00 ± 6.31

98.33 ± 3.09

Enriquez-Geppert, 2014 [67]

Total n = 40

Sham (n = 21, 25.8 ± 3.8)

Theta (n = 19, 23.8 ± 2.7)

3-back task:

80 ± 4.6

89 ± 4.4

Eschmann, 2020 [11]

Total n = 35

AC (n = 18, 23.30)

Theta (n = 17, 22.65)

WPT:

59.0 ± 12.72

64.5 ± 20.61

Eschmann, 2021 [25]

Total n = 35

AC (n = 18, 23.30)

Theta (n = 17, 22.65)

DMTST:

97.9 ± 2.12

98.9 ± 2.06

Escolano, 2012 [85]

Total n = 19

Sham (n = 9, 24.3 ± 3.67)

UA (n = 10, 25.8 ± 4.07)

MRT:

82 ± 6

90 ± 4.74

RAVLT-dr:

14.5 ± 0.7

14.8 ± 0.6

Escolano, 2014 [86]

Total n = 19

Sham (n = 9, 24.3 ± 3.7)

UA (n = 10, 28.5 ± 4.1)

MRT:

41.30 ± 1.95

45.20 ± 3.79

RAVLT-dr:

14.56 ± 1.62

14.8 ± 1.11

Farnia, 2017 [87]

Total n = 30

Sham (n = 10, 34.2 ± 5.70)

LA/UA (n = 10, 31.7 ± 6.40)

Beta (n = 10, 31.70 ± 6.65)

WMS-R:

107.26 ± 7.05

117.68 ± 7.04

122.46 ± 7.02

Farraj, 2024 [73]

Total n = 57

SC (n = 32, 23.8 ± 2.37)

UA (n = 25, 25.1 ± 2.21)

MRT:

91.60 ± 8.49

90.30 ± 9.70

Fritson, 2007 [15]

Total n = 32, 21.3 ± 4.24

Sham (n = 16)

SMR (n = 16)

K-BIT 2 & WRIT:

106.13 ± 10.8

106.00 ± 12.5

Gordon, 2019 [34]

Total n = 120

SC (n = 40, 21.98 ± 2.51)

UA (n = 20, 21.65 ± 2.45)

UA + WMT (n = 20, 21.60 ± 1.93)

UA + PC (n = 20, 22.60 ± 2.93)

PC (n = 20, 21.47 ± 2.35)

MRT:

75.00 ± 13.00

72.00 ± 15.00

83.00 ± 11.00

71.00 ± 15.00

75.00 ± 12.00

Guez, 2014 [65]

Total n = 30, 23.63 ± 2.79

Sham (n = 10)

UA (n = 10)

SMR (n = 10)

VMT:

97.00 ± 4.83

96.77 ± 8.21

98.22 ± 2.04

WPT:

99.00 ± 3.16

96.66 ± 5.00

97.77 ± 6.66

Hanslmayr, 2005 [18]

Total n = 18, 24.85 ± 3.55

AC (n = 9)

UA (n = 9)

MRT:

57.5 ± 15

62.5 ± 13.5

Hsueh, 2016 [16]

Total n = 50

AC (n = 25, 21.64 ± 2.40)

Alpha (n = 25, 20.96 ± 2.85)

BDST:

93.24 ± 4.84

96.10 ± 3.56

WPT:

68.05 ± 13.90

85.06 ± 9.51

Hsueh, 2012 [28]

Total n = 70

AC (n = 22, 20.6 ± 2.8)

Alpha (n = 25, 21.6 ± 2.4)

SMR (n = 23, 21.3 ± 2.3)

BDST:

95 ± 5.63

96 ± 2.5

93.5 ± 9.6

WPT:

70 ± 14.1

85 ± 5

80 ± 9.6

Keizer, 2010a [88]

Total n = 17, 22.6 years

Beta (n = 9)

Gamma (n = 8)

GPT:

75.5 ± 9

80.1 ± 11.3

Keizer, 2010b [24]

Total n = 14, 22 years

AC (n = 7)

Gamma (n = 7)

VMBC:

40.69 ± 10.58

119.1 ± 11.91

Khodakarami, 2020 [31]

Total n = 8

AC (n = 2, 25.69 ± 0.74)

Gamma (n = 6, 24.05 ± 2.61)

CFIT:

33.00 ± 7.07

51.33 ± 8.64

Kober, 2015 [66]

Total n = 20, 24.40 ± 8.27

Sham (n = 10)

SMR (n = 10)

BDST:

9.80 ± 1.89

8.80 ± 1.49

VVMT2-dr:

49.40 ± 7.94

48.70 ± 8.66

Kober, 2017 [80]

Total n = 20

SMR (n = 10, 46.80 ± 6.29)

Gamma (n = 10, 46.00 ± 3.98)

BDST:

9.50 ± 1.08

9.50 ± 2.06

VVMT2-dr:

56.10 ± 9.29

46.00 ± 10.25

Kober, 2020 [19]

Total n = 20

AC (n = 10, 25.30 ± 2.16)

SMR (n = 10, 24.5 ± 2.22)

BDST:

9.00 ± 1.93

8.30 ± 1.71

VVMT2-dr:

48.50 ± 7.08

44.70 ± 11.86

Lecomte, 2011 [89]

Total n = 20, 75.25 years

SC (n = 10)

UA (n = 10)

EWRT-ir:

11.10 ± 1.10

11.50 ± 0.71

GPT:

10.40 ± 1.17

11.10 ± 0.99

Li, 2023 [90]

Total n = 32

Sham (n = 16, 21.19 ± 2.56)

Alpha (n = 16, 22.12 ± 3.31)

MRT:

78.69 ± 13.58

77.00 ± 22.37

Marcos-Martínez, 2023 [27]

Total n = 19, 25.05 ± 4.18

AC (n = 8)

Theta (n = 11)

3-back task:

76 ± 26.87

77 ± 16.58

Naas, 2019 [68]

Total n = 33, 21.27 ± 1.43

Sham (n = 16)

UA (n = 17)

FDST:

9.69 ± 1.96

10.06 ± 2.49

Nan, 2012 [52]

Total n = 32, 23.28 ± 3.11

SC (n = 16)

Alpha (n = 16)

BDST:

10.25 ± 1.98

10.44 ± 3.53

Nawaz, 2023 [42]

Total n = 36, 25.45 ± 5.36

SC (n = 19)

Alpha (n = 17)

2-back task:

87.58 ± 4

90.66 ± 8

Nazer, 2018 [91]

Total n = 26

SC (n = 14, 22.28 ± 1.93)

SMR (n = 12, 22.58 ± 1.56)

KKVMT-st:

2 ± 0.96

2.41 ± 0.66

VM-dr:

2.1 ± 0.61

2.1 ± 0.39

Paban, 2024 [92]

Total n = 25

AC(n = 12, 70.50 ± 7.62)

Alpha (n = 13, 72.46 ± 6.25)

CCI-S:

27.26 ± 8.12

26.15 ± 4.33

Parsons, 2021 [93]

Total n = 30

SC (n = 10, 23.02 ± 2.78)

Sham + WMT (n = 10, 23.10 ± 3.48)

Alpha + WMT (n = 10, 21.90 ± 2.99)

3D-MOT:

43.5 ± 4.5

55 ± 5

72 ± 3

Pei, 2018 [29]

Total n = 20

AC (n = 10, 21.2 ± 1.72)

Alpha (n = 10, 22.7 ± 1.95)

BDST:

73.28 ± 8.39

82.83 ± 10.87

WPT:

54.00 ± 20.73

53.13 ± 27.05

Rozengurt, 2023 [35]

Total n = 60, 31.8 ± 7.60

PC (n = 20)

Theta/LB (n = 20)

Beta/theta (n = 20)

MP-dr

81.5 ± 13.42

78.5 ± 6.71

81.5 ± 13.42

Rozengurt, 2017 [33]

Total n = 75

PC (n = 25, 28.8 ± 6.5)

Theta (n = 25, 30.9 ± 7.7)

Beta (n = 25, 28.6 ± 7.0)

GPT:

18.2 ± 6

28 ± 1

23 ± 4

Salari, 2012 [32]

Total n = 20, 32 years

AC (n = 10)

Gamma (n = 10)

GPT:

59.70 ± 13.38

66.76 ± 12.46

Salari, 2014 [94]

Total n = 24, 29 years

Sham (n = 12)

Gamma (n = 12)

ODT:

72.5 ± 15.59

87 ± 9.01

Shen, 2023 [76]

Total n = 25, 22.90 ± 1.47

SC (n = 10)

Alpha (n = 15)

3-back task:

44.7 ± 2.11

45.5 ± 1.64

Shtoots, 2021 [95]

Total n = 54

SC (n = 18, 24.8 ± 3.7)

Theta (n = 18, 22.8 ± 2.9)

LB (n = 18, 24.1 ± 3.4)

VSMT:

65.98 ± 14.31

66.19 ± 22.46

67.13 ± 12.69

Smit, 2023 [69]

Total n = 55

Sham (n = 28, 32.5 ± 9.8)

Theta (n = 27, 34.5 ± 11.8)

3-back task:

81 ± 10.58

79 ± 10.39

Staufenbiel, 2014 [96]

Total n = 20

Beta (n = 10, 66.4 ± 6.01)

Gamma (n = 10, 69.2 ± 5.91)

GPT:

81.1 ± 10.75

78.4 ± 10.75

Tseng, 2021 [12]

Total n = 32, 21.60 ± 4.15

PC (n = 15)

Theta/LB (n = 17)

GPT:

62 ± 11.62

68 ± 20.62

Uslu, 2023 [43]

Total n = 29, 24.65 years

Sham (n = 10)

UA (n = 19)

MRT:

90.43 ± 4.96

87.86 ± 8.76

Van Eijk, 2017 [71]

Total n = 16

SC (n = 6, 79.2 ± 6.9)

SMR (n = 10, 77.9 ± 7.8)

RAVLT-ir:

34.7 ± 13.4

41.6 ± 15.7

RAVLT-dr:

6.0 ± 4.2

9.5 ± 4.8

Vekety, 2022 [97]

Total n = 28, 9.92 ± 4.35

SC (n = 15)

Alpha + Theta (n = 13)

TMT-B:

61.2 ± 14.7

60.1 ± 22.6

Vernon, 2003 [98]

Total n = 30, 22.1 ± 1.77

SC (n = 10)

Theta (n = 10)

SMR (n = 10)

SWMT:

74.5 ± 9.49

75.5 ± 9.49

82 ± 12.65

Wang, 2013 [30]

Total n = 16

AC (n = 8, 64.6 ± 2.4)

Theta (n = 8, 65 ± 3.3)

MST:

84 ± 28.3

91 ± 17.0

Wei, 2017 [17]

Total n = 30, 26 ± 3

AC (n = 15)

Alpha (n = 15)

BDST:

91 ± 3.09

97 ± 5.81

WPT:

58 ± 15.49

81 ± 10.45

Xiong, 2014 [13]

Total n = 36, young adult

SC (n = 12)

Sham (n = 12)

Theta/alpha (n = 12)

2-back task:

82.94 ± 7.79

81.70 ± 12.33

90.69 ± 4.83

Zhou, 2024 [44]

Total n = 40

Sham (n = 20, 23.55 ± 1.28)

Alpha (n = 20, 24.10 ± 1.21)

MST

72 ± 11.18

70 ± 13.41

Zoefel, 2011 [72]

Total n = 22

SC (n = 10, 22.1 ± 3.8)

UA (n = 12, 23.7 ± 2.3)

MRT:

114.7 ± 19.08

129.7 ± 11.63