Fig. 1

Third-person perspective for the virtual environment presented in (A) an integrated VR projection dome (IR) and (B) a head-mounted display (HMD). C Top-down view of the self-paced treadmill setup showing the anterior–posterior (AP) and medial–lateral (ML) axes, along which the visual perturbations were applied. \(\Delta\)X represents the participant’s displacement along the treadmill toward the projection screen, used to update self-paced belt speed. D Visualization of the optic flow stimulus applied during AP perturbation conditions. Controlled visual noise, dictated by a pseudorandom sum of sines function, is superimposed onto the participant’s current walking speed to introduce dynamic variations in perceived forward motion