Fig. 1

Experimental setup and procedures. (A) Participants stood between parallel bars facing a projector screen. We placed motion capture markers on the pointing leg of the lower limb. In the full vision condition, participants could see the position of their hip, knee, and ankle on the screen (black X’s). Before initiating a trial, participants needed to match their hip and toe positions to the “home” hip and toe positions; this ensured participants had a similar starting position across trials. Once they achieved the home position, we verbally cued participants of the upcoming trial. After a short delay, the target and toe trajectory template appeared on the screen. Participants needed to point with their toe to the target while tracing the template in one smooth motion, as accurately as possible. In the obstructed vision condition, participants wore dribble goggles (obstructing the lower visual field), and we did not give joint feedback during pointing. All other parameters were the same as the full vision condition. (B) Participants pointed to three different targets in this study, indicated by the different colours. The targets comprised of different combinations of hip, knee, and ankle (dorsi)flexion to 60% of each joint’s maximum range of motion